OPERATING SYSTEM: Mass storage structure

12.1 Overview of Mass-Storage Structure

12.1.1 Magnetic Disks

Traditional magnetic disks have the following basic structure:

One or more platters in the form of disks covered with magnetic media. Hard disk platters are made of rigid metal, while "floppy" disks are made of more flexible plastic.

Each platter has two working surfaces. Older hard disk drives would sometimes not use the very top or bottom surface of a stack of platters, as these surfaces were more susceptible to potential damage.

Each working surface is divided into a number of concentric rings called tracks. The collection of all tracks that are the same distance from the edge of the platter, ( i.e. all tracks immediately above one another in the following diagram ) is called a cylinder.

Each track is further divided into sectors, traditionally containing 512 bytes of data each, although some modern disks occasionally use larger sector sizes. ( Sectors also include a header and a trailer, including checksum information among other things. Larger sector sizes reduce the fraction of the disk consumed by headers and trailers, but increase internal fragmentation and the amount of disk that must be marked bad in the case of errors. )

The data on a hard drive is read by read-write heads. The standard configuration ( shown below ) uses one head per surface, each on a separate arm, and controlled by a common arm assembly which moves all heads simultaneously from one cylinder to another. ( Other configurations, including independent read-write heads, may speed up disk access, but involve serious technical difficulties. )

The storage capacity of a traditional disk drive is equal to the number of heads ( i.e. the number of working surfaces ), times the number of tracks per surface, times the number of sectors per track, times the number of bytes per sector. A particular physical block of data is specified by providing the head-sector-cylinder number at which it is located.

In operation the disk rotates at high speed, such as 7200 rpm ( 120 revolutions per second. ) The rate at which data can be transferred from the disk to the computer is composed of several steps:

The positioning time, a.k.a. the seek time or random access time is the time required to move the heads from one cylinder to another, and for the heads to settle down after the move. This is typically the slowest step in the process and the predominant bottleneck to overall transfer rates.

The rotational latency is the amount of time required for the desired sector to rotate around and come under the read-write head.This can range anywhere from zero to one full revolution, and on the average will equal one-half revolution. This is another physical step and is usually the second slowest step behind seek time. ( For a disk rotating at 7200 rpm, the average rotational latency would be 1/2 revolution / 120 revolutions per second, or just over 4 milliseconds, a long time by computer standards.

The transfer rate, which is the time required to move the data electronically from the disk to the computer. ( Some authors may also use the term transfer rate to refer to the overall transfer rate, including seek time and rotational latency as well as the electronic data transfer rate. )

Disk heads "fly" over the surface on a very thin cushion of air. If they should accidentally contact the disk, then a head crash occurs, which may or may not permanently damage the disk or even destroy it completely. For this reason it is normal to park the disk heads when turning a computer off, which means to move the heads off the disk or to an area of the disk where there is no data stored.

Floppy disks are normally removable. Hard drives can also be removable, and some are even hot-swappable, meaning they can be removed while the computer is running, and a new hard drive inserted in their place.

Disk drives are connected to the computer via a cable known as the I/O Bus. Some of the common interface formats include Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics, EIDE; Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA; Serial ATA, SATA, Universal Serial Bus, USB; Fiber Channel, FC, and Small Computer Systems Interface, SCSI.

The host controller is at the computer end of the I/O bus, and the disk controller is built into the disk itself. The CPU issues commands to the host controller via I/O ports. Data is transferred between the magnetic surface and onboard cache by the disk controller, and then the data is transferred from that cache to the host controller and the motherboard memory at electronic speeds.

12.1.2 Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic tapes were once used for common secondary storage before the days of hard disk drives, but today are used primarily for backups.

Accessing a particular spot on a magnetic tape can be slow, but once reading or writing commences, access speeds are comparable to disk drives.

Capacities of tape drives can range from 20 to 200 GB, and compression can double that capacity.